性别、民族主义和土耳其共和国建设 Gender, Nationalism and the construction of the Turkish Republic.

s to maintain homogeneity. All Turks required engagement and loyalty in the coming period to make Turkey a country of the Turks and only the Turks. Any ties related to foreign or Muslim ideologies were to be cut and all loyalties directed to the state. In an attempt to preserve their integrity, the idea of Ottomanism was invented. Regardless of legal status, traditional view, and opposition, the ideology offered Ottoman nationality, common to all citizens. The framework built was to adapt loyalty to the Ottoman state in which religious, radical, and linguistic groups could portray loyalty to the state. Intensification of partition forces was evident nonetheless. Ottoman rulers and Islamic ideologists then came up with the Pan-Islamism ideology. The ideology was meant to stress and emphasize the Muslim identity, common and a force to reckon with. The ideology aimed to attain unity, support, and loyalty from internal states, Muslims, and states like Egypt, Persia, and India. The ideology adopted that the highest-ranking title was autonomous to that of the pope and held great powers and protection duties to those willing to practice Islam. However, after a short and hard-fought struggle, the young Turks tore down this ideology, forcing their will, and the Sultan had no choice but to give in. It was then that Ottomanists realized that the losses they faced were great, and they have begun to consider the wholesome reformation in the modernization of their long-lived system. Gradually, they came to realize that an Islamic community-based ideology contradicted that of the nation. They were ready to ease their stressing on the centralization of the Islam beliefs and began considering confirmation of the Ottoman system's modernization. The gradual yet effective methods used by the nationalists paved the way for the reformation of Islamists. The Islamic nation was viewed as a contradiction to the nationalism that had gained huge momentum and could be viewed as a demerit in the course to pursue secularism. Although being vehemently opposed, Islam and ottomans shared features, and the fact that Islam was a building block in the region's independence could not be ignored. The imperial ideology sought to unite speakers of all Turkish languages and bring together leaders to work together for the common good on common ground. Pan Turarism seemed to keep Turkish hopes alive in the face of a crumbling Ottoman society. Nevertheless, this ideology was characterized by being artificial and utopian integrationist. The core of politics in the past was Islam based. Islam conceived nationalism to be a reductionist and evil method of reorganizing the world order based on territory and ethnicity. They held it responsible for nationwide disintegration and politics based. Some intellectuals did not regard this as a major threat to the aggressively upcoming nationalist movement. The Turkish national Gokalp included religious and racial criteria and was a significant aspect of the Turkish identity. It determined distinct boundaries and was the main identifier of Turkey, which set it apart. Therefore, the notable Turkish ideologies took a leaf from the pre-Islamic roots to portray that Turkishness was before Muslimness in the country's origin story. Pan Turkish unity was based on ancient blood ties before the world. The Turks' awakening was highly attributed to Pan Turanism and Pan Turkism, which paved the way for Kemal's non-imperialism. Kemal and his regime conducted their politics to further distancing themselves from the imperialism of anti-nationalism. In simpler terms, the imperial features had to be abandoned as it was contradictory to the goals of nationalism that were being aimed at. To avoid confrontation with Moscow, the notion of race was eliminated from Kemal's definition of nationalism. In March 1921, a treaty with the Soviet Union was concluded. Kemal vowed not to support Pan Turkic movements in Russia in exchange for Russians not to support T