which grants remuneration far above what is normal in the market is likely to have low ratings. Money transaction among the stakeholders such as top management, the sister companies and between shareholder cannot be trusted as accountability is likely to be a problem (Langohr & Langohr, 2010).
财务纪律和问责制是企业信用评级的另一个主要考虑因素。考虑的因素是组织内部的补偿。一家薪酬远高于市场正常水平的公司可能评级较低。最高管理层、姐妹公司等利益相关者之间以及股东之间的金钱交易是不可信任的，因为问责制可能是一个问题。
Companies or nations 公司或国家
In rating countries or companies, the following factors are considered. The political risk; most companies do have internal politics. Business politics is good if it only it can embrace diversity and allows people to share their different ideas get synergize them together to come up with better solution or leadership to the business. In cases where bad politics is present, the probabilities of financial impropriates are high which would give a poor rating.
在对国家或公司进行评级时，本篇paper会考虑以下因素。政治风险；大多数公司都有内部政治。商业政治是好的，只要它能拥抱多样性，让人们分享他们的不同想法，并将它们协同在一起，为企业提出更好的解决方案或领导力。在存在不良政治的情况下，财务不当的可能性很高，这将给出糟糕的评级。
National politics could lead to a country of peace which business operations are being carried on smoothly. In such an environment with political stability, a business can carry out its operations to get funds to pay their debt within time. This also applies to government borrowing. In case a country is in turmoil business are negatively affected thus their ability to repay their debts due to the risk involved is lowered therefore in such case the rating would relatively reduce irrespective of other factors.
国家政治可以带来一个商业运作顺利的和平国家。在这样一个政治稳定的环境中，企业可以开展业务，在一定时间内获得资金偿还债务。这也适用于政府借贷。如果一个国家陷入动荡，企业会受到负面影响，因此其偿还债务的能力会因所涉及的风险而降低，因此在这种情况下，无论其他因素如何，评级都会相对降低。
Regulatory risk; the laws that are enacted by countries are supposed to create a conducive environment for enabling business. The government should adopt policies or sign trade agreements that protect the local investments. In such as case, the economy grows allowing business and the government to repay loan. Some countries do enact monetary policies that act like a bullet shooting them in the foot. These policies may affect the countries’ internal and foreign investments.
监管风险；各国制定的法律应该为商业创造有利的环境。政府应该采取保护当地投资的政策或签署贸易协议。在这种情况下，经济增长允许企业和政府偿还贷款。一些国家制定的货币政策就像一颗子弹射中了他们的脚。这些政策可能会影响这些国家的国内外投资。
External risks: These risks relate to the treat such as wars or trade sanctions. A country that is engaged in war is at high risk of punishment by trading blocks and other external countries. In case a country receives such treat the implication is that it’s not able to carry any business with other nations. Which means it cannot be able to earn foreign exchange and which is used in repayment of government borrowings
外部风险：这些风险与战争或贸易制裁等待遇有关。一个参与战争的国家面临着被贸易集团和其他外部国家惩罚的高风险。如果一个国家受到这样的待遇，这意味着它无法与其他国家开展任何业务。这意味着它无法赚取外汇，并用于偿还政府借款
Fiscal risk; this depends on the balance between the government borrowing and expenditure. Is the government borrowing too much and spending away? Majorly the problem of over borrowing is common in third world countries in which the government officials are corrupt. Government borrowing is supposed to channeled to project that could create the return to help repay such loan. Countries with poor quality fiscal policies are rated lowly by the credit rating families.
财政风险；这取决于政府借贷和支出之间的平衡。政府是不是借了太多钱却把钱花光了？主要是过度借贷的问题在政府官员腐败的第三世界国家很常见。政府借款本应引导到能够创造回报的项目中，以帮助偿还此类贷款。信用评级家庭对财政政策质量差的国家的评级较低。
Economic risk; the economy of a country is determined by the gross domestic product. When there is a case of a poor economy such as the in a case of civil wars, the government cannot collect taxes, and there are cases of inflation which affect the country’s and company’s ability to repay the loans(Pinto, 2006).
经济风险；一个国家的经济是由国内生产总值决定的。当出现经济状况不佳的情况时，比如内战，政府无法征税，而通货膨胀会影响国家和公司偿还贷款的能力。
Accounting 财务
Creditability and accountability of finances in an organization is shown by good accounting. The financial reporting is a clear indication that a business is financially disciplined. Credit institutions rely m
